Employment Policy Measures to Improve the Economic Opportunities of Women in Serbia
Main Article Content
Abstract
The aim of the paper is to analyze the performance of women in the Serbian labor market. The research topic is gaining importance as Serbia is in a mature phase of implementing its strategic framework for employment policy. This paper applies an approach that focuses on analyzing the impact of labor market policies aimed at improving the economic position of women. It analyses labor market statistics, as well as relevant policy documents, previous studies and research findings that show how women are progressing on the scale of measurable indicators of gender equality and whether they are ready to take advantage of economic opportunities in the face of demographic challenges. While women still lag behind men, their labor force participation and employment rates show relative and absolute improvement. The differences in the basic labor market indicators in the population category with tertiary education have narrowed since 2023. The pay gap persists and has been closing slowly, despite the regulations and efforts to help women in the labor market through active measures. The main findings for Serbia are compared with other relevant research findings to derive conclusions based on a comparative analysis supported by recommendations.
Downloads
Article Details
Published by the Institute of Social Sciences - Center for Demographic Research
References
Aksoy, C.G., Özcan, B., & Philipp, J. (2021). Robots and the gender pay gap in Europe. European Economic Review, 134, 103693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2021.103693 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2021.103693
Atoyan, R., & Rahman, J. (2017). Western Balkans: Increasing Women’s Role in the Economy. IMF Working Paper No. 194, 2017. https://www.elibrary.imf.org/downloadpdf/journals/001/2017/194/article-A001-en.xml Accessed 15 May 2025.
Babović, D. & Kočović De Santo, M. (2023). Female entrepreneurship in the creative economy. Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, Special Issue: Strengthening opportunities and solutions for women entrepreneurs in Asia and Europe, 109-127. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee23.pp109-127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee23.pp109-127
Bennedsen, M., Larsen, B., & Wei, J. (2023). Gender wage transparency and the gender pay gap: A survey. Journal of Economic Surveys, 37(5), 1 743-1777. https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12545 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12545
Bennedsen, M., Simintzi, E., Tsoutsoura, M., & Wolfenzon, D. (2022). Do firms respond to gender pay gap transparency? The Journal of Finance, 77(4), 2051-2091. https://doi.org/10.1111/jofi.13136 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jofi.13136
Bertola, G., Blau, F., & Kahn, L. (2007). Labor market institutions and demographic employment patterns. Journal of Population Economics, 20(4), 833–867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-007-0137-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-007-0137-8
Blau, F., & Kahn, L. (2003). Understanding international differences in the gender pay gap. Journal of Labor Economics, 21(1), 106-144. https://doi.org/10.1086/344125 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/344125
Council Decision (EU) No. 2020/1512 of 13 October 2020 on guidelines for the employment policies of the Member States. (2020, October 13). Official Journal of the EU, L 344: 22-28. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32020D1512. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Council Decision (EU) No. 2022/2296 of 21 November 2022 on guidelines for the employment policies of the Member States. (2022, November 21). Official Journal of the EU, L 304: 67-77. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32022D2296&qid=1693510259184. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Cuberes, D., Munoz-Boudet, A.M., & Teignier, M. (2019). How costly are labor gender gaps? Estimates by age group for the Balkans and Turkey. Eastern European Economics, 57(1), 86–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/00128775.2018.1486715 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00128775.2018.1486715
De Hauw, Y., Grow, A., & Van Bavel, J. (2017). The reversed gender gap in education and assortative mating in Europe. European Journal of Population, 33(4), 445–474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-016-9407-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-016-9407-z
Devedžić, M., & Šobot, A. (2025). Demografski profil mladog stanovništva Srbije [Demographic Profile of the Young Population in Serbia]. Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2025/Pdf/G20254003.pdf
Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 July 2006 on the implementation of the principle of equal opportunities and equal treatment of men and women in matters of employment and occupation (recast). (2006, July 5). Official Journal of the EU, L 204: 23-36. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:204:0023:0036:en:PDF. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Directive 2023/970/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 May 2023 to strengthen the application of the principle of equal pay for equal work or work of equal value between men and women through pay transparency and enforcement mechanisms. (2023, May 10). Official Journal of the EU, L 132: 21-44. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32023L0970. Accessed 25 July 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53373/VULS.2024.44.2.051
Equality Act. (2009). Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia no. 104/2009. https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi_download/zakon_o_ravnopravnosti_polova.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
European Commission. (2020a). Evaluation of the relevant provisions in the Directive 2006/54/EC implementing the Treaty principle on ‘equal pay for equal work or work of equal value’ (SWD(2020) 50 final). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52020SC0050. Accessed 15 May 2025.
European Commission. (2020b). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - A Union of Equality: Gender Equality Strategy 2020-2025 (COM(2020) 152 final). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0152. Accessed 15 May 2025.
European Commission. (2021). The European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. https://op.europa.eu/webpub/empl/european-pillar-of-social-rights/downloads/KE0921008ENN.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Eurostat. (2021). EU Labor Force Survey - new methodology from 2021 onwards. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=EU_Labour_Force_Survey_-_new_methodology_from_2021_onwards. Accessed 25 July 2025.
Eurostat. (2025a). Labor Market. Statistical Database. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database. Accessed 25 July 2025.
Eurostat. (2025b). Over-qualification rates by citizenship. Statistical Database. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/lfsa_eoqgan/default/table?lang=en&category=sks.sks_mis.sks_mis_lfsa. Accessed 25 July 2025.
Eurostat. (2025c). Unemployment rates by educational attainment level. Statistical Database. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/lfsa_urgaed__custom_17853263/default/table. Accessed 25 July 2025.
Fodor, E., & Balogh, A. (2010). Back to the kitchen? Gender role attitudes in 13 East European countries. Zeitschrift für Familienforschung, 22(3), 289–307. https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-259 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-259
Gligorijević, V., & Bakić, D. (2022). The decline of educational hypergamy in the former Yugoslav republics. Stanovništvo, 60(1), 69–96. https://doi.org/10.2298/STNV2201069G DOI: https://doi.org/10.2298/STNV2201069G
Government of the Republic of Serbia. (2021a). Employment Strategy in the Republic of Serbia for the Period 2021-2026. Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia no. 18/21 and 36/21 – correction. https://www.minrzs.gov.rs/sites/default/files/2021-04/Strategija%20zaposljavanja%20u%20RS%202021-2026.docx. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Government of the Republic of Serbia. (2021b). Action Plan for the Period 2021-2023 for the Implementation of the Employment Strategy in the Republic of Serbia 2021-2026. Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia no. 30/21. https://www.minrzs.gov.rs/sites/default/files/2025-01/Action%20plan%20for%20implementation%20of%20ES%20for%202021.%20do%202023%20.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Government of the Republic of Serbia. (2024). Action Plan for the Period 2024-2026 for the Implementation of the Employment Strategy in the Republic of Serbia 2021-2026. Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia no. 22/24. https://www.minrzs.gov.rs/sites/default/files/2024-07/Action%20Plan%202024%E2%80%932026%20for%20the%20Implementation%20of%20the%20Employment%20Strategy%20....pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
International Labor Organization. (2023). Statistics on Social Dialogue. Database. https://ilostat.ilo.org/topics/industrial-relations/#. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Law on Gender Equality. (2021). Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia no. 52/2021. https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/zakon-o-rodnoj-ravnopravnosti.html. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Leitner, S.M. (2022). A skill-specific dynamic labor supply and labor demand framework: A scenario analysis for the Western Balkan countries to 2030. Labour, 36(4), 471–504. https://doi.org/10.1111/labr.12231 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/labr.12231
Mincer, J., & Polachek, P. (1974). Family investments in human capital: earnings of women. Journal of Political Economy, 82(2), Part 2: Marriage, Family, Human Capital, and Fertility, S76-S108. https://doi.org/10.1086/260293 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/260293
Ministry of Labor, Employment, Veteran and Social Affairs of the Republic of Serbia. (2022). Annual implementation report Action Plan for 2021. https://www.minrzs.gov.rs/sites/default/files/2023-06/Annual%20report%20on%20the%20implementation%20of%20the%20Action%20Plan%20for%202021.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Ministry of Labor, Employment, Veteran and Social Affairs of the Republic of Serbia. (2023). Annual implementation report Action Plan for 2022. https://www.minrzs.gov.rs/sites/default/files/2023-07/Annual%20report%20on%20the%20implementation%20of%20the%20Action%20Plan%20for%202022.pdf Accessed 15 May 2025.
Ministry of Labor, Employment, Veteran and Social Affairs of the Republic of Serbia. (2024). Annual implementation report Action Plan for 2024 (Godišnji izveštaj o sprovođenju Akcionog plana za 2024. godinu). https://www.minrzs.gov.rs/sites/default/files/2025-06/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%9A%D0%B8%20%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%98%20%D0%BE%20%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%92%D0%B5%D1%9A%D1%83%20a%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%20%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%B7%D0%B0%202024.%20%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83.pdf Accessed 15 May 2025.
National Employment Service. (2023a). Izveštaj o radu nacionalne službe za zapošljavanje za 2022. godinu. https://nsz.gov.rs/filemanager/Files/Dokumenta/Izve%C5%A1taj%20i%20program%20rada%20NSZ/Izve%C5%A1taj%20o%20radu%20I%20-%20%20XII%202022%20godine.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
National Employment Service. (2023b). Youth Guarantee Implementation Plan 2023-2026. Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia no. 120/2023. https://nsz.gov.rs/filemanager/Files/Dokumenta/Garancija%20za%20mlade/Youth%20Guarantee%20Implementation%20Plan%202023-2026.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
National Employment Service. (2025). Monthly Statistical Bulletin no. 274. (June 2025). https://www.nsz.gov.rs/filemanager/Files/Dokumenta/Statisti%C4%8Dki%20bilteni/2025/Bilten%20NSZ%20-%20Jun%202025.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Ognjenović, K. (2015). On-the-job training and human resource management: How to improve the competitive advantage of an organization? Organization, 48(1), 57-70. https://doi.org/10.1515/orga-2015-0005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/orga-2015-0005
Ognjenović, K. (2021). Gender wage gap in Serbia: Inheritance and sources of the wage gap. Stanovništvo, 59(2), 123-141. https://doi.org/10.2298/STNV2102123O DOI: https://doi.org/10.2298/STNV2102123O
Ognjenović, K. (2023). Impact of continuing education on stable employment and wages of men and women in Serbia. Economic Analysis, 56(1), 69-84. https://doi.org/10.28934/ea.23.56.1.pp69-84 DOI: https://doi.org/10.28934/ea.23.56.1.pp69-84
Ognjenović, K. (2024). Equal pay and employment in Serbia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Management: Journal of Sustainable Business and Management Solutions in Emerging Economies, 29(2), 37-50. https://doi.org/10.7595/management.fon.2023.0018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7595/management.fon.2023.0018
Ognjenović, K., & Đukić, M. (2023). Response of the Economic System to COVID-19: A Review of Evaluation Methods Applied in Assessing Economic Policy Effects in Serbia. In: E. Azukas & M. Kim (Eds.) Reimagining Systems Thinking in a Post-Pandemic World (pp. 121-142). Hershey, PA, USA: I GI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-7285-9.ch006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-7285-9.ch006
Ognjenović, K., & Pavlović, D. (2021). SILC in the Republic of Serbia: Methodological Framework and Analysis of Selected Indicators of Poverty and Inequality. Belgrade: Institute of Economic Sciences.
Ognjenović, K., Pavlović, D., & Bodroža, D. (2022). Are the self-employed at a higher poverty risk? Empirical evidence from Serbian SILC data. Serbian Journal of Management, 17(2), 389-401. https://doi.org/10.5937/sjm17-40150 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5937/sjm17-40150
Rubery, J., Grimshaw, D., & Figueiredo, H. (2005). How to close the gender pay gap in Europe: Towards the gender mainstreaming of pay policy. Industrial Relations Journal, 36(3), 184–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2338.2005.00353.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2338.2005.00353.x
Schneebaum, A., Rehm, M., Mader, K., & Hollan, K. (2018). The gender wealth gap across European countries. Review of Income and Wealth, 64(2), 295-331. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12281 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12281
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (2020). Women and Men in the Republic of Serbia. Belgrade: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. https://www.stat.gov.rs/media/5806/zim-u-rs-2020_webopt.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (2021). Labor Force Survey – Data from 2021. Meta Data. https://data.stat.gov.rs/Metadata/24_Zarade/Html/240003_ESMS_G0_2021_2.html. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (2024). Structure of Earnings Survey in the Republic of Serbia 2022. Bulletin no. 712. Belgrade: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2024/Pdf/G20245712.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (2025a). Labor Market - Annual Data. Database. https://data.stat.gov.rs/?caller=SDDB&languageCode=sr-Latn. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (2025b). Labor Force Survey in the Republic of Serbia 2024. Bulletin no. 720. Belgrade: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2025/Pdf/G20255720.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2025.
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (2025c). Education – Secondary Education. Communication of 30.01.2025. Belgrade: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. https://www.stat.gov.rs/sr-latn/vesti/statisticalrelease/?p=16831&a=11&s=1103?s=1103. Accessed 25 July 2025.
Theodoropoulos, N., Forth, J., & Bryson, A. (2022). Are women doing it for themselves? Female managers and the gender wage gap. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 84(6), 1329-1355. https://doi.org/10.1111/obes.12509 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/obes.12509
Vladisavljević, M., Avlijaš, S., & Vujić, S. (2015). Gender Wage Inequality in the Western Balkans. In: In C. Perugini & F. Pompei (Eds.) Inequalities During and After Transition in Central and Eastern Europe. Studies in Economic Transition (pp. 222–243). London: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137460981_10 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137460981_10