Socioeconomic Determinants of Perceived Exposure to Noise and Pollution: Urban–Rural Differences across European Countries
Bočna strana članka
Objavljeno:
Nov 2, 2026
Ključne reči:
Noise, pollution, urban-rural inequality, European countries, EU-SILC data
Glavni sadržaj članka
Apstrakt
Environmental issues and climate change pose a growing threat to public health and longevity across Europe, with air and noise pollution contributing significantly to premature mortality and diminished quality of life. In this paper, we investigate perceived environmental risks. The probit method is used to estimate the probability of perceived exposure to noise or pollution controlling for individual and household characteristics. The dataset is the 2023 Survey of Income and Living Conditions for European Union countries (except Germany, Ireland, Slovenia and the Netherlands) and Serbia. Our results reveal significant heterogeneity between European countries; however, in all but one country, living in cities, towns or suburbs vs. living in rural areas has a significant influence on the probability of perceived exposure to noise or pollution. The marginal effect for urban areas ranges from 2% in Slovakia to 40% in Greece. There is no significant difference between genders. Elderly people have a lower probability of perceived exposure. When compared to tenants, homeowners have a lower probability of perceived exposure, suggesting that individuals chose to buy property for living in areas with fewer environmental problems. In the majority of countries, people at-risk-of-poverty have a higher probability of perceived exposure to noise or pollution. In Serbia and Latvia, the effect is opposite: poverty is higher in rural than in urban areas, and the former areas have lower perceived exposure to noise or pollution. Our results suggest that effective policy measures are necessary to reduce noise and pollution in urban areas all around Europe. Additionally, policies for reducing urban-rural inequalities within countries could have a direct effect on a more equal distribution of risks between cities, towns and rural areas.
Puni tekst članka je dostupan za ovaj lokalitet: English.
Detalji članka
Kako citirati
Anić, A. (2026). Socioeconomic Determinants of Perceived Exposure to Noise and Pollution: Urban–Rural Differences across European Countries. Stanovništvo. https://doi.org/10.59954/stnv.798
Broj časopisa
Sekcija
Tematska sekcija: Populaciona dinamika i izazovi životne sredine
Sva prava zadržana (c) 2026 Aleksandra Anić
Centar za demografska istraživanja Instituta društvenih nauka
Reference
Banzhaf, H. S., & Walsh, R. P. (2008). Do people vote with their feet? An empirical test of Tiebout’s mechanism. American Economic Review, 98(3), 843-863. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.98.3.843
Banzhaf, S., Ma, L., & Timmins, C. (2019). Environmental justice: The economics of race, place, and pollution. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33(1), 185-208. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.33.1.185
Begou, P., & Kassomenos, P. (2021). Exposure to the road traffic noise in an urban complex in Greece: The quantification of healthy life years lost due to noise-induced annoyance and noise-induced sleep disturbances. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(10), 12932-12943. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11190-4
Betti, G., Neri, L., Lonzi, M., & Lemmi, A. (2020). Objective Environmental Indicators and Subjective Well-Being: Are They Directly Related?. Sustainability, 12(6), 2277. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062277
Bickerstaff, K., & Walker, G. (2001). Public understandings of air pollution: The "localisation" of environmental risk. Global Environmental Change, 11(2), 133-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(00)00063-7
Burnett, R., Chen, H., Szyszkowicz, M., Fann, N., Hubbell, B., Pope, C. A., Apte, J. S., Brauer, M., Cohen, A., Weichenthal, S., Coggins, J., Di, Q., Brunekreef, B., Frostad, J., Lim, S. S., Kan, H., Walker, K. D., Thurston, G. D., Hayes, R. B., Lim, C. C., Turner, M. C., Jerrett, M., Krewski, D., Gapstur, S. M., Diver, W. R., Ostro, B., Goldberg, D., Crouse, D. L., Martin, R. V., Peters, P., Pinault, L., Tjepkema, M., van Donkelaar, A., Villeneuve, P. J., Miller, A. B., Yin, P., Zhou, M., Wang, L., Janssen, N. A. H., Marra, M., Atkinson, R. W., Tsang, H., Quoc Thach, T., Cannon, J. B., Allen, R. T., Hart, J. E., Laden, F., Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Weinmayr, G., Jaensch, A., Nagel, G., Concin, H., & Spadaro, J. V. (2018). Global estimates of mortality associated with long-term exposure to outdoor fine particulate matter. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(38), 9592-9597. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803222115
Cesaroni, G., Badaloni, C., Romano, V., Donato, E., Perucci, C. A., & Forastiere, F. (2010). Socioeconomic position and health status of people who live near busy roads: The Rome Longitudinal Study (RoLS). Environmental Health, 9(1), 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-9-41
Chiarini, B., D’Agostino, A., Marzano, E., & Regoli, A. (2020). The perception of air pollution and noise in urban environments: A subjective indicator across European countries. Journal of Environmental Management, 263, 110272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110272
Drigo, A. (2024). Breathing inequality? Income, ethnicity and PM2.5 exposure in Bologna, Italy (Working Paper No. 24.2024). Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei. https://hdl.handle.net/10419/306775
Dzhambov, A. M., Hartig, T., Tilov, B., Atanasova, V., Makakova, D. R., & Dimitrova, D. D. (2019). Residential greenspace is associated with mental health via intertwined capacity-building and capacity-restoring pathways. Environmental Research, 178, 108708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.108708
European Environment Agency. (2024). Harm to human health from air pollution in Europe: Burden of disease status (Briefing No. 21/2024). Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2800/3950756
European Environment Agency. (2025). Environmental noise in Europe 2025 (EEA Report 05/2025). Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2800/5134480
Eurostat. (2024). European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) microdata, 2024 release: Data covering 2004–2023 [Data set]. https://doi.org/10.2907/EUSILC2004-2023
Evans, G. W. (2003). The Built Environment and Mental Health. J Urban Health, 80, 536-555. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/jtg063
Evans, G. W., & Kantrowitz, E. (2002). Socioeconomic status and health: The potential role of environmental risk exposure. Annual Review of Public Health, 23(1), 303-331. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.23.112001.112349
Foraster, M., Esnaola, M., López-Vicente, M., Rivas, I., Álvarez-Pedrerol, M., Persavento, C., Sebastian-Galles, N., Pujol, J., Dadvand, P., & Sunyer, J. (2022). Exposure to road traffic noise and cognitive development in schoolchildren in Barcelona, Spain: A population-based cohort study. PLOS Medicine, 19(6), e1004001. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1004001
Greene, W. H. (2020). Econometric analysis (8th global ed.). Pearson. https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9781292231150_A39514649/preview-9781292231150_A39514649.pdf
Havard, S., Reich, B. J., Bean, K., & Chaix, B. (2011). Social inequalities in residential exposure to road traffic noise: An environmental justice analysis based on the RECORD Cohort Study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 68(5), 366-374. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2010.060640
Hayward, M., & Helbich, M. (2024). Environmental noise is positively associated with socioeconomically less privileged neighborhoods in the Netherlands. Environmental Research, 248, 118294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.118294
Herrera, C., & Cabrera-Barona, P. (2022). Impact of perceptions of air pollution and noise on subjective well-being and health. Earth, 3(3), 825-838. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth3030047
Analysing Malta’s implementation of Directive 2002/49/EC on the assessment and management of environmental noise. European Parliament (2026). https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/IUST_STU(2026)783089
Hoffmann, B., Robra, B. P., & Swart, E. (2003). Soziale Ungleichheit und Strassenlärm im Wohnumfeld-eine Auswertung des Bundesgesundheitssurveys. Das Gesundheitswesen, 65(06), 393-401. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2003-40308
Lelieveld, J., Klingmüller, K., Pozzer, A., Burnett, R. T., Haines, A., & Ramanathan, V. (2019). Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15), 7192-7197. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1819989116
Lercher, P. (1996). Environmental noise and health: An integrated research perspective. Environment International, 22(1), 117-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-4120(95)00109-3
Libertun de Duren, N. R., López Benítez, B., Bonilla, J. P., Regalia, F., Bilal, U., Ibáñez, A. M., Schady, N., Chauvin, J. P., Pinillos, J., Hoffmann, B., Medina, M. P., Blackman, A., Savedoff, W. D., Slesinski, C., Cortínez-O’Ryan, A., Indvik, K., Mazariego, M., Morais, L. M. de O., Vidaña-Pérez, D., Rubinstein, A., Cejas, C., Corburn, J., Pérez-Jaramillo, J., & Martinez-Herrera, E. (2022). Inclusive Cities: Healthy Cities for All (N. R. Libertun de Duren, Ed.). Inter-American Development Bank. https://doi.org/10.18235/0004459
Maione, M., Mocca, E., Eisfeld, K., Kazepov, Y., & Fuzzi, S. (2021). Public perception of air pollution sources across Europe. Ambio, 50(6), 1150-1158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-020-01450-5
Markevych, I., Schoierer, J., Hartig, T., Chudnovsky, A., Hystad, P., Dzhambov, A. M., de Vries, S., Triguero-Mas, M., Brauer, M., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Lupp, G., Richardson, E. A., Astell-Burt, T., Dimitrova, D., Feng, X., Sadeh, M., Standl, M., Heinrich, J., & Fuertes, E. (2017). Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: Theoretical and methodological guidance. Environmental Research, 158, 301-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.06.028
Miedema, H. M. E., & Vos, H. (1999). Demographic and attitudinal factors that modify annoyance from transportation noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 105(6), 3336-3344. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.424662
United Nations. (2025). World Urbanization Prospects 2025: Summary of Results (UN DESA/POP/2025/TR/ NO. 12). https://doi.org/10.18356/9789211576788
Vlachokostas, C., Achillas, C., Michailidou, A. V., & Moussiopoulos Ν. (2012). Measuring combined exposure to environmental pressures in urban areas: An air quality and noise pollution assessment approach. Environment International, 39(1), 8-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2011.09.007
Walker, G. (2012). Environmental Justice: Concepts, Evidence and Politics. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203610671
Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data (2nd ed.). MIT Press. https://ipcid.org/evaluation/apoio/Wooldridge%20-%20Cross-section%20and%20Panel%20Data.pdf
World Bank. (2025). World Development Report 2025: Standards for Development. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-2275-9
World Health Organization. (2024). How much does environmental noise affect our health? WHO updates methods to assess health risks [News release]. https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/04-08-2024-how-much-does-environmental-noise-affect-our-health--who-updates-methods-to-assess-health-risks
World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. (2025). Health risks of air pollution in Europe: HRAPIE-2 project: Updated guidance on concentration-response functions for health risk assessment of air pollution in the WHO European Region. https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/9789289062633
Banzhaf, S., Ma, L., & Timmins, C. (2019). Environmental justice: The economics of race, place, and pollution. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33(1), 185-208. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.33.1.185
Begou, P., & Kassomenos, P. (2021). Exposure to the road traffic noise in an urban complex in Greece: The quantification of healthy life years lost due to noise-induced annoyance and noise-induced sleep disturbances. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(10), 12932-12943. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11190-4
Betti, G., Neri, L., Lonzi, M., & Lemmi, A. (2020). Objective Environmental Indicators and Subjective Well-Being: Are They Directly Related?. Sustainability, 12(6), 2277. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062277
Bickerstaff, K., & Walker, G. (2001). Public understandings of air pollution: The "localisation" of environmental risk. Global Environmental Change, 11(2), 133-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(00)00063-7
Burnett, R., Chen, H., Szyszkowicz, M., Fann, N., Hubbell, B., Pope, C. A., Apte, J. S., Brauer, M., Cohen, A., Weichenthal, S., Coggins, J., Di, Q., Brunekreef, B., Frostad, J., Lim, S. S., Kan, H., Walker, K. D., Thurston, G. D., Hayes, R. B., Lim, C. C., Turner, M. C., Jerrett, M., Krewski, D., Gapstur, S. M., Diver, W. R., Ostro, B., Goldberg, D., Crouse, D. L., Martin, R. V., Peters, P., Pinault, L., Tjepkema, M., van Donkelaar, A., Villeneuve, P. J., Miller, A. B., Yin, P., Zhou, M., Wang, L., Janssen, N. A. H., Marra, M., Atkinson, R. W., Tsang, H., Quoc Thach, T., Cannon, J. B., Allen, R. T., Hart, J. E., Laden, F., Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Weinmayr, G., Jaensch, A., Nagel, G., Concin, H., & Spadaro, J. V. (2018). Global estimates of mortality associated with long-term exposure to outdoor fine particulate matter. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(38), 9592-9597. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803222115
Cesaroni, G., Badaloni, C., Romano, V., Donato, E., Perucci, C. A., & Forastiere, F. (2010). Socioeconomic position and health status of people who live near busy roads: The Rome Longitudinal Study (RoLS). Environmental Health, 9(1), 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-9-41
Chiarini, B., D’Agostino, A., Marzano, E., & Regoli, A. (2020). The perception of air pollution and noise in urban environments: A subjective indicator across European countries. Journal of Environmental Management, 263, 110272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110272
Drigo, A. (2024). Breathing inequality? Income, ethnicity and PM2.5 exposure in Bologna, Italy (Working Paper No. 24.2024). Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei. https://hdl.handle.net/10419/306775
Dzhambov, A. M., Hartig, T., Tilov, B., Atanasova, V., Makakova, D. R., & Dimitrova, D. D. (2019). Residential greenspace is associated with mental health via intertwined capacity-building and capacity-restoring pathways. Environmental Research, 178, 108708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.108708
European Environment Agency. (2024). Harm to human health from air pollution in Europe: Burden of disease status (Briefing No. 21/2024). Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2800/3950756
European Environment Agency. (2025). Environmental noise in Europe 2025 (EEA Report 05/2025). Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2800/5134480
Eurostat. (2024). European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) microdata, 2024 release: Data covering 2004–2023 [Data set]. https://doi.org/10.2907/EUSILC2004-2023
Evans, G. W. (2003). The Built Environment and Mental Health. J Urban Health, 80, 536-555. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/jtg063
Evans, G. W., & Kantrowitz, E. (2002). Socioeconomic status and health: The potential role of environmental risk exposure. Annual Review of Public Health, 23(1), 303-331. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.23.112001.112349
Foraster, M., Esnaola, M., López-Vicente, M., Rivas, I., Álvarez-Pedrerol, M., Persavento, C., Sebastian-Galles, N., Pujol, J., Dadvand, P., & Sunyer, J. (2022). Exposure to road traffic noise and cognitive development in schoolchildren in Barcelona, Spain: A population-based cohort study. PLOS Medicine, 19(6), e1004001. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1004001
Greene, W. H. (2020). Econometric analysis (8th global ed.). Pearson. https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9781292231150_A39514649/preview-9781292231150_A39514649.pdf
Havard, S., Reich, B. J., Bean, K., & Chaix, B. (2011). Social inequalities in residential exposure to road traffic noise: An environmental justice analysis based on the RECORD Cohort Study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 68(5), 366-374. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2010.060640
Hayward, M., & Helbich, M. (2024). Environmental noise is positively associated with socioeconomically less privileged neighborhoods in the Netherlands. Environmental Research, 248, 118294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.118294
Herrera, C., & Cabrera-Barona, P. (2022). Impact of perceptions of air pollution and noise on subjective well-being and health. Earth, 3(3), 825-838. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth3030047
Analysing Malta’s implementation of Directive 2002/49/EC on the assessment and management of environmental noise. European Parliament (2026). https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/IUST_STU(2026)783089
Hoffmann, B., Robra, B. P., & Swart, E. (2003). Soziale Ungleichheit und Strassenlärm im Wohnumfeld-eine Auswertung des Bundesgesundheitssurveys. Das Gesundheitswesen, 65(06), 393-401. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2003-40308
Lelieveld, J., Klingmüller, K., Pozzer, A., Burnett, R. T., Haines, A., & Ramanathan, V. (2019). Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15), 7192-7197. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1819989116
Lercher, P. (1996). Environmental noise and health: An integrated research perspective. Environment International, 22(1), 117-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-4120(95)00109-3
Libertun de Duren, N. R., López Benítez, B., Bonilla, J. P., Regalia, F., Bilal, U., Ibáñez, A. M., Schady, N., Chauvin, J. P., Pinillos, J., Hoffmann, B., Medina, M. P., Blackman, A., Savedoff, W. D., Slesinski, C., Cortínez-O’Ryan, A., Indvik, K., Mazariego, M., Morais, L. M. de O., Vidaña-Pérez, D., Rubinstein, A., Cejas, C., Corburn, J., Pérez-Jaramillo, J., & Martinez-Herrera, E. (2022). Inclusive Cities: Healthy Cities for All (N. R. Libertun de Duren, Ed.). Inter-American Development Bank. https://doi.org/10.18235/0004459
Maione, M., Mocca, E., Eisfeld, K., Kazepov, Y., & Fuzzi, S. (2021). Public perception of air pollution sources across Europe. Ambio, 50(6), 1150-1158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-020-01450-5
Markevych, I., Schoierer, J., Hartig, T., Chudnovsky, A., Hystad, P., Dzhambov, A. M., de Vries, S., Triguero-Mas, M., Brauer, M., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Lupp, G., Richardson, E. A., Astell-Burt, T., Dimitrova, D., Feng, X., Sadeh, M., Standl, M., Heinrich, J., & Fuertes, E. (2017). Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: Theoretical and methodological guidance. Environmental Research, 158, 301-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.06.028
Miedema, H. M. E., & Vos, H. (1999). Demographic and attitudinal factors that modify annoyance from transportation noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 105(6), 3336-3344. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.424662
United Nations. (2025). World Urbanization Prospects 2025: Summary of Results (UN DESA/POP/2025/TR/ NO. 12). https://doi.org/10.18356/9789211576788
Vlachokostas, C., Achillas, C., Michailidou, A. V., & Moussiopoulos Ν. (2012). Measuring combined exposure to environmental pressures in urban areas: An air quality and noise pollution assessment approach. Environment International, 39(1), 8-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2011.09.007
Walker, G. (2012). Environmental Justice: Concepts, Evidence and Politics. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203610671
Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data (2nd ed.). MIT Press. https://ipcid.org/evaluation/apoio/Wooldridge%20-%20Cross-section%20and%20Panel%20Data.pdf
World Bank. (2025). World Development Report 2025: Standards for Development. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-2275-9
World Health Organization. (2024). How much does environmental noise affect our health? WHO updates methods to assess health risks [News release]. https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/04-08-2024-how-much-does-environmental-noise-affect-our-health--who-updates-methods-to-assess-health-risks
World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. (2025). Health risks of air pollution in Europe: HRAPIE-2 project: Updated guidance on concentration-response functions for health risk assessment of air pollution in the WHO European Region. https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/9789289062633